Thiamine Functions and Structure

Thiamine Functions and Structure Marno Terblanche Clinical Chemistry II BAssignment Overview About five million individuals in America suffer from heart failure, with an additional 550,000 new diagnosis made each year. The life expectancy of people living with this condition has gradually increased due to the availability of useful and established treatment opportunities. The percentage of mortality in the States continues to be high even though things like â€Å"omega-3 fatty acids, ÃŽ ²-blockers and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors† have bettered the circumstances of these people. Vitamin B1, or better known as Thiamine, plays an integral part in the treatment of heart failure and is regarded as a clinical significant factor in the well-being of the heart. It also enhances the prognosis and general health of the patients. Heart failure can be caused by trace mineral deficiencies such as thiamine deficiency and therefore thiamine supplementation can be of great assistance in the treatment of this condition (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Vitamin B1 was the first out of eight B-vitamins to be identified, and ever since the discovery it was given several names, with Thiamine being used the most (DiNicolantonio, 2013). It is a water-soluble vitamin, meaning that it cannot be stored by the body and is obtained through food sources such as beef, nuts, milk and whole-grain foods (Ehrlich, 2011). Studies around the causes of beriberi by a Dutch physician and pathologist, Christiaan Eijkman, led to the discovery of Vitamin B1 in 1897. Beriberi is a widespread and sometimes deadly disease associated with heart failure. By 1926, vitamin B1 was separated into its pure form and given the name thiamine (Vitamins in Motion, 2013). More about Thiamine (Vitamin B1) Absorption The absorption of thiamine takes place in the jejunum with the aid of two processes. An active transport system in the small intestines is responsible for the absorption of thiamine once the levels drop below normal. Once the levels are too high, an inactive mucosal process occurs. The small intestines are capable of absorbing about 5 mg of thiamine. Tissues can reserve up to 30 mg of thiamine. The storing of thiamine is very important as the body cannot produce its own. The liver, heart, kidneys and brain are some of the organs which stores thiamine, with most of it found in the skeletal muscles (Nguyen-Khoa, 2013). Structure The structure of thiamine consists of a pyrimidine ring with the radical –NH2 and a thiazole ring. These two rings are connected with one another by means of a methylene bridge (Mouton, 2014:4). Thiamine found within living tissues have a diphosphate ester structure known as thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). TPP serves as a coenzyme that binds tightly to the apoenzyme (Ball, 1998:268). Functions There are four structures of thiamine that are present in all human beings. They include: thiamine monophosphate, thiamine diphosphate, thiamine triphosphate and unphosphorylated thiamine (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Thiamine is very important in the body as it operates as a coenzyme that converts carbohydrates into glucose, which in turn is used to provide energy. It also assists in the metabolism of fats and protein, and is essential for healthy eyes, hair, skin and liver (Ehrlich, 2011). Thiamine monophosphate can actively move into the central nervous system and nerves where it is capable of preserving the sodium and potassium concentrations. Sodium and potassium is required for nerve impulse conduction, and therefore it is vital for these levels to be maintained (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Thiamine is occasionally referred to as an â€Å"anti-stress† vitamin because of its ability to support the immune system and improve the ability of a person’s body to endure traumatic situations. People who suffer from vitamin B1 deficiency are deprived from these normal functions that the vitamin provides, and therefore they develop conditions such as dry and wet beriberi (Ehrlich, 2011). Thiamine deficiency Diets that are low or deficient in vitamin B1 can lead to Thiamine deficiency (beriberi) as well as constant (long-lasting) diarrhoea. Diarrhoea actually weakens the body’s capacity to take up vitamin B1 (Nguyen-Khoa, 2013). There are two forms of beriberi namely dry and wet beriberi. Dry beriberi involves the deficiency of thiamine that affects the nervous system while wet beriberi comprises of cardiovascular complications (DiNicolantonio, 2013). A potential reason as to why wet beriberi arises, because of thiamine deficiency, is based on the fact that ATP is depleted from the cardiac muscle cells. The decrease in ATP then leads to the weakening of the cardiac muscle, which in the long run causes heart failure. There will be an increase in the concentration of adenosine monophosphate in the cardiac muscle cells as a result of the inability of the cells to produce ATP. The adenosine monophosphate is then converted to adenosine, which then starts to accumulate in the cells and then finally leading to its release into the plasma by the aid of a nucleoside transporter. The manifestation of systemic vasodilatation and headaches is due to adenosine in the plasma (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Features of wet beriberi As a result of thiamine deficiency and specifically wet beriberi, patients will represent with cardiovascular symptoms. It will include swelling of cells and tissues because of excessive water build-up, lactic acidosis, fluid retention, systemic dilation of blood vessels and a high-or-low-output cardiac failure. In addition to the mentioned symptoms other signs such as increased levels of catecholamine and low diastolic pressure may be evident of wet beriberi (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Shoshin beriberi is known as an acute version of wet beriberi and these patients may show signs of an acute cardiovascular collapse as well as metabolic acidosis. If left untreated (i.e. if thiamine is not injected immediately) it may lead to death (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Epidemiology The prevalence of beriberi may be associated with the fact that milled rice was consumed by some populations all over the world. The external part of the rice that contained thiamine was removed by the milling process. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) there is a significant improvement in Indonesia where this process of removing the outer crust was and still is implemented. Back in the day beriberi was widespread and a health concern, but currently the occurrence is less common than what it was. Beriberi has a tendency to affect infants between 1 and 4 months as well as adults (Knott, 2010). Measurement of thiamine Direct detection is one of the methods used to measure the concentration of thiamine in the system. It can also be measured by determining enzyme activity of those enzymes that require thiamine for optimal functioning. There is more than one method that can be used to measure thiamine levels. Urinary and serum thiamine level estimation, red blood cell transketolase and TPP (thiamine pyrophosphate) analysis is some of the methods available. It is important to measure thiamine stores and amongst all current tests available there is still no consistent test usable for this purpose. Thiamine will move to the liver and enter the red blood cells soon after it has been absorbed in the jejunum. The amount of thiamine in blood ranges from 60-120 ÃŽ ¼g/L. From this total volume (concentration) about 80% will be found within the red blood cells. Because thiamine has a limited duration in the body, it is not reliable to measure serum levels or use it as a marker of thiamine stores (DiNicolantoni o, 2013). Excretion of thiamine in the distal nephron is also directly associated with the amount of thiamine in blood. However, the concentration will be dependent on recent intake only, and therefore isn’t indicative of thiamine sites (for storage) in the body. 24-hour urine samples are required for evaluating thiamine levels, and this may be tiresome for the individual (DiNicolantonio, 2013). So far the most effective and reliable test available is the â€Å"erythrocyte transketolase activity assay† that evaluates transketolase activity. In an artificial manner thiamine is added to the red blood cells followed by the measurement of transketolase activity. Transketolase cannot function without thiamine diphospahte. Because it requires the coenzyme for optimal functioning the action of the transketolase enzyme proves that there is indeed thiamine diphosphate in the cells. Since red blood cells are one of the first cell types to be affected by thiamine deficiency, it can be considered an accurate test procedure (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Treatment Thiamine supplements are essential to those individuals that suffer from dry or wet beriberi. It is recommended that 1.1-1.2 mg of thiamine supplements are administered on a daily basis. When it comes to wet beriberi the patient may require 100 mg/day intravenous thiamine supplementation for more than a few days. It has also been suggested that individuals whose chances are higher of developing the deficiency should receive 100 mg of supplements three times daily. In instances where there is a confirmed deficiency, an increased dosage of thiamine (from 100 to 200 mg) should be taken three times daily. The supplementation is critical for the management and treatment of this deficiency and it has been showed that there is substantial improvement in the condition after the person received treatment (DiNicolantonio, 2013). Prognosis Beriberi is not that difficult to treat. With proper treatment one can expect to see a significant recovery, even in more severe types of this deficiency. Within 12 hours of supplementation one can notice an improvement. Because treatment provides for more rapid recovery, it can almost be used as a diagnostic test. Overall the prognosis is fairly good (Nguyen-Khoa, 2013). Conclusion Individuals who suffer from heart failure are more prone to develop vitamin deficiencies such as thiamine deficiency. It is therefore important to limit any nutritional defects to prevent such deficiencies from occurring. This is a controllable condition and with necessary treatment one can expect substantial improvements. The use of vitamin B1 has demonstrated to better heart function, urinary function as well as symptoms of heart failure (DiNicolantonio, 2013). References Ball, G.F.M. (1998). Bioavailability and Analysis of Vitamins in Foods. 1st ed. London: Chapman Hall. DiNicolantonio, JJ. et al. (2013). Thiamine Supplementation for the Treatment of Heart Failure: A Review of the Literature. Congestive Heart Failure [online]. 19, p.214-222. Available from: . [Accessed 18 August 2014]. Ehrlich, SD. (2011). University of Maryland Medical Center [online]. Available from: https://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/vitamin-b1-thiamine>. [Accessed 18 August 2014]. Knott, L. (2010). Patient.co.uk [online]. Available from: www.patient.co.uk/doctor/beriberi>. [Accessed 26 August 2014]. Mouton, TM. (2014). Clinical Chemistry II B Core Notes Bellville: CPUT Nguyen-Khoa, DT. (2013). Medscape [online]. Available from: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/116930-overview>. [Accessed 18 August 2014]. Vitamins in Motion [online]. (2013). Available from: www.vitaminsinmotion.com//VitaminsinMotion_VitaminB1.pdf‎>. [Accessed 9 August 2014].

Phantom Limbs, Phantom Pain, And The Essay -- Biology Essays Research

Phantom Limbs, Phantom Pain, And The "I-Function" The so-called "I-function" which describes the brain's sense of self takes on interesting connotations when discussing phantom limbs and associated phantom pain. The loss of an arm or leg through amputation is not an easy experience to endure, and is even more difficult when the patient begins to feel sensations in their now missing limb. These feelings, sometimes referred to as "stump hallucination", is the subjective sensation, not arising from an external stimulus, that an amputated limb is still present (1). Although they no longer exist, patients perceive these limbs as still being essential components of their body-image, and continues to move in sync with their torso and other limbs. For some amputees, these phantom sensations may be no more than painless distractions of pressure, warmth, and cold that do not interfere with their everyday lives. But for the majority of amputees, about 50% to 80% (2), they experience phantom pains that vary in classification from cramping, burning, tingling, shocking, shooting and stabbing pains. These episodes are severe enough to interfere with work, sleep and normal function and do require some kind of treatment. Phantom pain can occur anytime, from immediately after an amputation to several years later. The powerful impression of a stable, embodied self is taken for granted. But it's an perception that's possible only because of the body image created by the brain. A significant element of that image is a mental map of the body surface, generated by the cortex using the sensory signals it receives from the skin. Other regions of the cortex control other components, such as the position of muscles and joints (proprioception),... ... http://www.bfe.org/protocol/pro05eng.htm 3)THEY DO IT WITH MIRRORS , From New Scientist http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/brynmawr_main?http_rc=400&class=session&sev=temp&type=session&cause=http%3A%2F%2Fweb1.infotrac.galegroup.com%2Fitw%2Finfomark%2F805%2F448%2F25790840w3%2Fpurl%3Drc1_EAIM_0_A63676311%26dyn%3D4!ar_fmt%3Fsw_aep%3Dbrynmawr_main&cont=&msg=No+Session+cookies&sserv=no 4) Harris, J. A. "Cortical Origin of Pathological Pain." in Lancet, vol. 354 (pg. 1464-1466) 1999 5)Scientific American, Ronald Melzack article http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/= 6)Discover Phantom limbs , Brief Article http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_n2_v19/ai_20159526 7) Ramachandran, V.S. & Rogers-Ramachandran, D. "Phantom Limbs and Neural Plasticity." in Archives of Neurology. Vol. 57 (pg. 317-320), 2000, Ramachandran article

Reflection About My First Year of College

After ending this first year of college I experienced a lot of things and I will remember most of them for the rest of my life. I have experienced some good things and some others that have not been that good, but probably that is part of college and being away from home. Obviously, I would like to have changed some of those, but some others I would not have changed. I am going to start talking about all the things I would like to have change.During this first year I have lived good and bad moments, but I have learnt a lot about all I lived. I would like to say that one of the things that have affected me the most is living so far from home. I am not used to live away from home and it has been a problem during the all year, especially at the beginning. I missed my family a lot, because we were so close and I missed my friends as well. The other thing I would have change would definitely be my dorm. This year I probably lived in the worse dorm we have on Ohio.I know for fact that it i s one of the oldest ones and it has not been renovated for more than a few years. First of all, the all hall smelled pretty bad. I do not know exactly what it was but it smelled old and it seemed dirty. Another part of it was the rooms. The rooms were small and badly distributed. They had one bed almost next to the other, and then they had just one desk for two people. Another bad thing about my dorm would be the bathrooms. We did not have a private bathroom, and they were pretty badly built.We only had four showers for the whole floor. It means twenty or twenty five people for four showers. The last thing I want to mention that I do not like about my dorm is about the laundry. When I first got in my dorm and I put my first laundry, I took my clothes out of the dryer and they were one or two sizes smaller than usual. After that I thought they would get smaller every time but they did not. Finally, the only thing I like about the rooms is that they have a sink. It is always nice if y ou can wash your hands and brush your teeth in your own room.I came to the United States to play soccer and this year has been a hard year for me. I have not played like I would like to have done it. Probably because of all the things I said above that have not gone very well. This is the reason why this year has not been perfect. After all, I have learnt about it and I am ready to come back next year and try my best again. Definitely I would have changed my first year of tennis and I would like to have been more successful. Moving on I am going to talk about the experiences I would not have changed.The most important one is my friends. I made a lot of friends here through the year and I would not change them for anything. I really like people from the United Stated, I think they are so friendly and they try to help you anytime. I will always remember when I first got here at ohio I was kind a lost on campus and everybody could tell that and most of them tried to help me. Another im portant thing that has affected me is the language. But I want to say that I would not have changed that.I am from Spain and as everybody knows the main language is Spanish, not English. It is true that a lot of people there speak English but when I came I did not know this language really well and I had to work so hard to be able to speak and write it like now. I still think I have a lot to improve but I speak it much better that last semester. I have to say it has been an important issue because I was pretty scared to come in the United States because I knew I had to understand people, talk to them, and write for school.Later on I realized that the only way to improve quickly in another language is by moving to the country and interacting with the people. Finally, I would not have changed my roommate. We are both from Spain and I knew him before we came here in the United States. I have known him since we were twelve because both of us play tennis. That is why we came to ohio, to be able to play tennis and study at the same time and together. I think I was lucky because we had a room together because it must be really hard to live and share a room with somebody that you do not know.I think every country has its own culture and if you have a roommate from another country it can be a little bit hard. Like I said before, I got lucky to share a room with him and even though I knew him from Spain you really only get to know someone when you live with them. It has been hard but we had so much fun and we really enjoyed the experience. In conclusion, I had a lot of fun this year at Ohio, and there are some things I would have changed but I think I learnt from them and I will learn more about other experiences that will happen next year.

Analysis of Saving Private Ryan and Longest Day Essay

Analysis of Saving Private Ryan and Longest Day On the beach in Northern France, an American Soldier searches frantically for his lost arm. Gunshots emerge from all angles of the screen. As this soldier helplessly goes from one place to another, there are more dead bodies piling up on Omaha Beach in Northern France. As this soldier collects his separated arm from the battlefield and walks off into the horizon, Tom Hanks enters a rather explosive battle. He leads his men into battle with nothing more than guns and a helmet. This is Spielberg’s view of D-Day. The ‘Longest Day’ directed by Daryl Zarwuck in 1962. It doesn’t use colour and begins this scene at the moment of landing on Omaha Beach†¦show more content†¦If we see that the area is light then it might be the fact that that area is safe. Where as the areas in the shadows might be that the areas that are dangerous. The sound-track helps us establish a lot in this film because of the pace of the music and the style. It tells the audience whether or not the place the characters are in is dangerous depending on the music or sound being played. The weapons the characters carry varies from one person to another because only the soldiers of a high rank would carry one. The setting/landscape of this film is important because you are shown the important objects that reflect what is going on in the film. The film ‘Saving Private Ryan’ directed by Steven Spielberg in1998. It is set in 1944 but made in 1998 because it uses colour and more modern of the two films. It begins this scene on a boat where the soldiers are on a boat eating and drinking before landing on the Omaha Beach in Northern France. Some of the soldiers are sea-sick which means that they don’t want to come to battle but are forced to come. When they reach the shores of Omaha Beach, the tank-traps are a lot smaller. 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Loneliness in Steinbecks Of Mice and Men Essay - 1084 Words

How true is the statement Guys like us are the loneliest guys in the world Personally I believe that this statement is true in every aspect. Loneliness is a big part of the book Of mice and men. The book shows loneliness in every ones life in the book. The quote says Guys like us George is talking about the ranch workers by saying us we know they are all lonely because they all show signs of loneliness, they try to fight this by making friends I think that in the book Steinbeck tries to show us that loneliness can be resolved by friendship. George blames Lennie for him being lonely ?I could get a girl, shoot some pool and stay at the cat house? George seems to be in denial as even if Lennie wasn?t there he wouldn?t be able to†¦show more content†¦When Lennie comes in and does not have any intention of hurting him, he realizes it and he lets his guard down. It may seem that he doesnt desire friendships or affection, but he no longer knows how to deal with his loneliness. It has made him into another person. Curleys wifes loneliness has altered the w ay she is towards others, making her very flirtatious. The men on the ranch avoid her because of flirtatious personality to keep out of trouble. No one understands her situation and how loneliness affects her. Her insecurity is easily seen by the way she dresses and wears her make-up. She uses her appearance to receive attention like when Curleys Wife was standing there looking in. She had full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. Her fingernails were red. Her hair hung in little rolled clusters, like sausages. She wore a cotton housedress and red mules, on the steps of which were little bouquets of red ostrich feathers. Curleys Wife feels she must dress this way for people to notice her and give her attention. Her dressing-up is unnecessary because they live on a farm and this is not the typical or practical clothing. The way she dresses proves her insecurity and her lack of confidence. 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As this quote suggests, when people begin to feel lonely, they wish to be accepted. But along with the desire for attention, the lonesome person’s suspicion grows. They become wary of the people around them, fearing rejection or judgement. Believing thatRead MoreEssay on Theme of Loneliness in John Steinbecks Of Mice and Men1136 Words   |  5 PagesThe Theme of Loneliness in Of Mice and Men      Ã‚  Ã‚   In the novel, Of Mice and Men John Steinbeck used George and Lennies relationship and the theme of hope to point out the loneliness in the novel. The novel starts off and is set in Soledad which means lonely. At the beginning they get a job working on a farm together. Lennie is a little retarded and has great physical strength that isnt too controllable. As they work from ranch to ranch, Lennie relies on George for guidance and help. 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Financial Analysis in the Case of Ford Motor Co and...

Financial analysis in the case of Ford Motor Co and Microsoft Corporation Each company must prepare financial statements to provide a comprehensive picture about its past performance and situation for the owners, the managers, the state and other stakeholders as well. In the case of enormous, international public limited companies like Ford and Microsoft these statements and data are public, so anybody can reach them through the internet. Moreover, we can also compute a lot of financial ratios based on these data. If we want to get an authentic frame about the firms, we have to know what these statement and ratios mean. In addition, it’s difficult for the companies that they want to give other picture about their financial status to†¦show more content†¦This isn’t surprising, namely its market capitalization could be said high, also within the industry, but its income is lagging behind the main competitors. About the rate of Ford’s growth we can say it decreases. From 2007 the operating revenue, the gross operating profit and also the EBITDA reduced strongly from year to year. In 2007, its operating revenue was more than 170 million $, whereas just 118 million $ last year. However, the rate of the depreciation and the interest expenses lessened in the recent years, so Ford could realize raising net income. Its free cash flow growth was also negative last year, and 6 companies had passed Ford in this aspect in the industry. Also its revenue and net profit margin are less than the main competitors’ ones in the recent years, by the former GM and Toyota come before the Ford, by the latter also the Toyota, Honda, SORL and Tata. In conclusion, we can state that Ford’s ratios shows a lot about the situation of the company. It’s clear, that also its book value equity and the net income were negative in the last years, it can realize a less than 3000 million $ net income only in 2009. 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Secure Software Development Cycle

Question: How secure software development cycle can provide help to mitigate SQL and other vulnerable attacks. Answer: Introduction This paper is about Secure Software Development Cycle and how it can provide help to mitigate SQL and other vulnerable attacks. Software Development Cycle is used to develop software solution in an active and reliable manner. But security of this development cycle is very much necessary to maintain. Secure Software Development Cycle is also known as S-SDLC refers to incorporating security into Software Development Life Cycle. In every phase, security will be highly preferred or stressed by developers. Incorporating security into software development framework provides various benefits to developers and users. There are some important reasons available for using S-SDLC, but the main reason is that it gives prevention from hackers and phishers. These attacks are vulnerable to computer systems and networks. Besides these attacks, Secure Software Development Life Cycle can control SQL attacks. In next segment of this report, we will discuss that how S-SDLC is beneficial for SQL Attacks. Discussion Secure Software Development Lifecycle can control SQL attacks, but before emphasize on this topic, it is important to discuss SQL attacks. SQL attack is also known as SQL injection attack. It is related to insertion or injection of SQL query via the input data from client side to application. A successful SQL injection or attack can read sensitive data from the application database, modify data, insert and delete data from the database. This SQL attack command injects the data-plane input to effect the execution of predefined SQL commands. S-SDLC provides help to control SQL injection in a way that while developing, security process tools and coding techniques are used, and the database coding is also done in a secured way. That is why it becomes difficult for hackers to access the database through an SQL injection. SQL injection enhances confidentiality and integrity of the database and this is necessary to get rid of SQL injection. Besides SQL injections, other attacks that put bad influence over database are virus attacks, malware, and denial of service attacks. These are some common attacks for computer and internet users. Secure Software Development Life Cycle is helpful to mitigate these attacks in a way that during the development cycle, at each phase virus and malware identification and scanning is implementing. This effort provides virus free software solution to users. In this way, secure software development life cycle is helpful to control SQL and other attacks effectively. After discussing secure software solution, now in next segment of this report, we will analyze some essential topics of an article that is about monitoring of security threats, vulnerability assessments and secure software development life cycle and some other important concepts. The purpose of analyzing this article is to explore the importance of secure software development lifecycle. (Owasp.org, 2016) Analysis of Article Security Posture This article delivers information about the security posture, and this is an essential aspect of maintaining security in organizations. Security posture is a security plan for business, and it consists of steps from planning to implementation. All technical, non-technical policies, procedures and controls are mentioned in it, and these can provide prevention from internal and external threats. This security posture is also active to get prevention from hackers, phishers, Spammers and Script Kiddies. Security Posture Assessment Security Posture Assessment is also known as security assessment, and it is a testing or examining process about client current infrastructure and system to identify issues regarding security, vulnerability, and possible loopholes. This security posture consists of different types of controls, Initial Baseline, Continuous Monitoring, Remediation, Performance Baseline and Tools such as protocol analyzers (Wireshark) and monitors for network i.e. HIDS and NIDS. These all tools are highly recommended for network monitoring to maintain security in an appropriate way. (Darryl MacLeod, 2012) Bypass of Security Equipment Besides above security posture and its other essential factors that are useful to maintain security for a long time, another solution is related to Bypass of Security Equipment. It provides help to target attacks against detection. Some ways in bypass of security equipment are failsecure/hardfail, and it reacts to failure in secure ways, and it is considered to be best security option. On other side softfail is reflected to be the least secure way to respond to failures. Next essential topic that is covered in this article is related to system auditing. This system audit is helpful to support procedures, security of systems and recovery of disasters. System Audits In this, baselines are state of IT practices and functionality of system at a specific point in time. This is a basis for comparison or measurement and provides necessary visibility to control change. System Audits can maintain security posture, policies and procedures and the focus of system audit is above discussed baselines. Besides this, right for access, storage, and retention policies are also come under system audit. (InfoSec Resources, 2013) From above discussion, it is cleared that the purpose of the article is to emphasize on essential activities and tools that are necessary to maintain security appropriately. Today with the advancement of technology, security concerns are also increasing, and users have to face issues like database violations and information leakage, etc. To handle these situations, security posture will be helpful enough. Before using security tools and techniques for maintaining security in computer systems and networks, vulnerability assessment is necessary. So that we can know about actual amount of risk in case of security. Vulnerability Assessment According to vulnerability assessment, risk occurs due to threat, assets and vulnerability. Assets can be any item of economic value that is owned by individual or business. Threat can be any circumstance that can put harmful impact over asset or can damage it and vulnerability is security weakness of asset and due to this weakness threat has occurred for asset. While assessing vulnerability regarding security some essential aspects are considered such as risk, impact and probability. Different tools are used for implementing vulnerability assessment such as penetration testing through network mappers (nmap, angry IP scanner, LanSpy). These above discussed processes like system audit, vulnerability assessment, and bypass security equipment can be used for secure software development cycle by developers for developing highly secure, reliable and quality software solutions for IT users. References Darryl MacLeod. (2012). What is Security Posture? Retrieved 17 March 2016, from https://darrylmacleod.wordpress.com/2012/03/09/what-is-security-posture/ 20 Critical Security Controls: Control 6 - Application Software Security | The State of Security. (2013). The State of Security. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from https://www.tripwire.com/state-of-security/security-data-protection/20-critical-security-controls-control-6-application-software-security/ InfoSec Resources. (2013). Introduction to Secure Software Development Life Cycle - InfoSec Resources. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/intro-secure-software-development-life-cycle/ Owasp.org. (2016). SQL Injection - OWASP. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from https://www.owasp.org/index.php/SQL_Injection