Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay About 48000 large dams have been built as a response to meet energy or water need. Nearly half of the worlds rivers have at least one large dam. One-third of the countries in the world rely on hydropower for more than half their electricity supply, and large dams generate 19% of electricity overall. Half the worlds large dams were built exclusively or primarily for irrigation, and some 30-40% of the 271 million hectares irrigated worldwide rely on dams. There are dams on nearly half of the rivers of the world (Table 2.6). Six percent of the energy consumed in the world is produced from hydraulic power. Additionally, hydraulic power is in the second rank within the renewable energy sources and every year it increases 4 percent in the world. Dams whose height is more than 15 meters are referred to as big dams. Clearly, dams can play an important role in meeting peoples needs (Table 2.7). Table 2.6. Distribution of Dams on the World Continent Number of Dams Percentage of the total Africa 1269 2.7 Asia 31340 65.8 America 8989 18.8 Europe 5480 11.5 Australia 577 1.2 Total 47655 100 Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. There are always two opinions about dams the supporters talk about the economic benefits of irrigation, electricity generation, flood control and water supply, the opponents highlight the adverse impacts of displacement and impoverishment of people, destruction of ecosystems and fishery resources, and possibility of disaster if the dam breaks. Environmental Impacts of Large Dams Land and water are ecologically linked in a natural system called a watershed. From the smallest droplet to the mightiest river, water works to shape the land, taking with it sediment and dissolved materials that drain to watercourses and, in most cases, eventually to the sea. The river is a product of the land it flows through the type of rock and soil, the shape of the land, and the amount of vegetation are some of the factors that determine the rivers shape, size and flow. When a large dam is constructed, these ties between the land and the river are broken and the consequences are felt throughout the watershed, as well as by the web of life it supports. Some 40,000 large dams, most of which were built in the past 50 years, now obstruct the worlds rivers. More than 400,000 square kilometers an area larger than Zimbabwe, have been inundated by reservoirs worldwide. The worlds largest impoundment, the 8,500 sq km Volta Reservoir behind Ghanas Akasombo Dam, flooded 4% of that nations land area. An internal survey of hydroelectric dam projects by World Bank has shown that 58% of the dams were planned and built without any consideration of downstream impacts. Table 2.7. Countries having the Biggest Dams according to Size and Function Rank Countries having Biggest Dams Ranking with respect to Dams Function Electrical Energy Water For Drinking and Daily Use Irrigation Flood Protection 1. China China USA China China 2. USA USA United Kingdom India USA 3. India Canada Spain USA Japan 4. Spain Japan Japan Korea Brazil 5. Japan Spain Australia Spain Germany 6. Canada Italy Thailand Turkey Romania 7. Korea France South Africa Japan Mexico 8. Turkey Norwegen Brazil Mexico Korea 9. Brazil Brazil France S. Africa Canada 10 France Swedish Germany Albania Turkey Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. The following are a few serious environmental impacts of dams: . (i) Effects on River Systems Reducing the flow of water from a river changes the landscape it flows through, which in turn can affect the ecosystems flora and fauna. A dam holds back sediments, especially the heavy gravel and cobbles. The river, deprived of its sediment load, seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream channel and banks, undermining bridges and other riverbank structures. Riverbeds are typically eroded by several meters within a decade of first closing a dam; the damage can extend for tens or hundreds of kilometers below a dam. Riverbed deepening lowers the groundwater table along a river, threatening vegetation and local wells in the floodplain and requiring crop irrigation in places where there was previously no need. The depletion of riverbed gravels reduces habitat for many fish that spawn in the river bottom, and for invertebrates such as insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Changes in the physical habitat and hydrology of rivers are implicated in 93% of freshwater fauna declines in North America. Before construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the Nile River carried about 124 million tons of sediment to the sea each year, depositing nearly 10 million tons on the floodplain and delta. Today, 98% of that sediment remains behind the dam. The result has been a drop in soil productivity. The Aswan Dam has also led to serious coastal erosion, another problem stemming from the loss of sediments in a dammed river. Another example of this problem is along the mouth of the Volta River in Ghana. Akosombo Dam has cut off the supply of sediment to the Volta Estuary, affecting also neighboring Togo and Benin, whose coasts are now being eaten away at a rate of 10-15 meters per year. (ii) Hydrological Effects Dams change the pattern of the flow of a river, both reducing its overall volume and changing its seasonal variations. The nature of the impacts depends on the design, purpose and operation of the dam. All parts of a rivers ecology can be impacted by changes to its flow. A rivers estuary, where fresh water meets the sea, is a particularly rich ecosystem. Some 80% of the worlds fish catch comes from these habitats, which depend on the volume and timing of nutrients and fresh water. The alteration of the flows reaching estuaries because of dams and diversions is a major cause of the precipitous decline of sea fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, the Black and Caspian Seas, Californias San Francisco Bay, the Eastern Mediterranean and others. (iii) Changes to Flooding The storage of water in dams delays and reduces floods downstream. River and floodplain ecosystems are closely adapted to a rivers flooding cycle. The native plants and animals depend on its variations for reproduction, hatching, migration and other important lifecycle stages. Annual floods deposit nutrients on the land, flush out backwater channels, and replenish wetlands. It is generally recognized by biologists that dams are the most destructive of the many abuses causing the rapid disappearance of riverine species. About 20% of the worlds recognized 8,000 freshwater species are threatened with extinction. The first effect of a dam is to alter the pattern of disturbances that the plants and animals of a river have evolved for. Many aquatic animals coordinate their reproductive cycles with annual flood seasons. Every flood is valuable in that it takes nutrients from the land and deposits them in the river, providing food for the streams residents. Floods also provide shallow backwater areas on vegetated and shaded riversides; the young of many animals depend on these backwaters to protect them from large predators.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As an example, a fish on a certain river may only reproduce during April of every year so that its offspring will have abundant food and places to hide. If the flood never comes because a dam holds the river back (because people want the water for themselves), the offspring may be produced during a time when they cannot possibly survive. If the fish can wait until the next flood, which may be in July, its young will be born during the wrong time of year, and will have to contend with the absence of their normal food supply and temperatures for which they are not prepared. Vegetation, too, depends upon these regular cycles of flood. Quite often, people will decide that they can spare no water at all and no flooding will occur. Or they may have built the dams specifically to stop flooding, so they can build houses in the floodplains. When this happens, riparian vegetation, the vegetation bordering the river, changes forever. (iv) Removing Sediment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another reason that riverbeds become scoured and armored is that dams remove all the sediment from the river. It is natural that the river, which is accustomed to carrying sediment and now has none, will pick up the sediment from the streambed below the dam. It is almost as though the river has been starved of its sediment. As in everything else in nature, balance will be achieved one way or the other, often at the expense of one or more species.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The sediment in a dammed river reaches the slow-moving reservoir above the dam and drops out, settling behind the dam. Each dam is engineered to withstand the force of a particular amount of water (this may be very very large). The dam is not engineered to withstand the additional force of tons of wet sediment pressing on the backside. The muddier the river, the faster this heap of sediment will build up. When it builds up very high, either the dam bursts, killing people and destroying settlements downstream, or the reservoirs water pours over the top of the dam. The river downstream of the dam will be like a dead river. It will not have a living river ecosystem filled with fish and birds. The water will be starved of nutrients and provide little or no habitat for animals. In addition, animals that once used the muddiness of the rivers water to conceal them from predators are now overly vulnerable to predation, and may quickly go extinct. A river with dams eventually becomes little more than a dead channel of water. (v) Starving the River   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dams hold back not only sediment, but also debris. The life of organisms (including fish) downstream depends on the constant feeding of the river with debris. This debris includes leaves, twigs, branches, and whole trees, as well as the organic remains of dead animals. Debris not only provides food, it provides hiding places for all sizes of animals and surfaces for phytoplankton and microorganisms to grow. Without flooding and without a healthy riparian zone, this debris will be scarce. Adding to the problem, although debris might come from the river above the dam, it is instead trapped in the reservoir, and never appears downstream. The bottom level of the food web is removed. All in all, the loss of sediment and debris means the loss of both nutrients and habitat for most animals. (vi) Changing Temperature Temperature is another problem. Rivers tend to be fairly homogenous in temperature. Reservoirs, on the other hand, are layered. They are warm at the top and cold at the bottom. If water is released downstream, it is usually released from the bottom of the dam, which means the water in the river is now colder than it should be. Many macro-invertebrates depend on a regular cycle of temperatures throughout the year. When this is changed, their survival is threatened. (vii) Erosion The typical practices in a hydroelectric station are to release large amounts of water in powerful surges during the day in order to provide electricity when demand and prices are highest, and to cut down flow during the night in order to replenish reservoirs for the next day. The cyclic floods caused by this popular practice contribute to the extinction of many species like the salmon by flushing away their spawning gravels during the day and leaving them high and dry at night. Riverbeds become scoured, stripped of their organic materials, sediment, vegetation, and macro-invertebrates. (viii) Stopping Fish Migration   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fish passage is a concern with dams. Many fishes must move upstream and downstream to complete their lifecycles. Dams are often built without fish ladders. When fish ladders are provided, they seldom work as needed. If enough adult fishes do manage to climb above a dam, there remains the issue of their young: how will they get back downstream? Predators kill many while they wander, lost, in the reservoir above the dam. Many are killed in their fall downward through the dam to the river below. They arent killed by the fall itself, but by the high levels of nitrogen gas at the base of the dam.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many fishes that cannot climb dam ladders or leap over low dams. Some of these fishes swim upstream every year to breed, and then let the water carry them back downstream. The eggs of pelagic spawners float downstream, too, which is why the adults must swim far upriver to breed. Otherwise, the baby fish would soon end up in sea. (ix) Social Impacts of Dams: Conflict with people The most important social impact of a dam is displacement of people. The forced removal of people from their homes and the land by which they make a living has been the tragic consequence of dams. Although the people are offered resettlement, the situation leads to disintegration of self-identity and place-connection for both individuals and communities. The social connections are lost and the people find it hard to recover a sense of belonging to both community and the physical environment that supports their existence. The major issues related to displacement are summarized below: Effect Biogeophysical impacts Social impacts Primary (direct) Flooding of reservoir Water diversion and hydrological changes Soil compaction and paving Mountain top removal and stream filling Reduction/depletion of minerals and species Deforestation Creation of barriers to species migration Eviction and resettlement Labour camps Loss of resource due to construction and/or flooding Secondary (indirect) Landslide, flood, and earthquakes from dams Water quality decline Soil salinisation Loss (or gain) of fish and wildlife populations Ecosystem changes leading to pest problems or disease Aquifer disruption causing problems downstream Loss of fish species leads to loss of migratory bird species Loss of access to resources and property Unemployment with project completion Psychosocial stresses Creation of new identities Urbanization as labour camps become permanent Unsustainable agriculture in resettlement area leading to soil erosion Ethnic conflict due to resettlement The inundation of the river valley has significant adverse social impacts by blocking access to natural and social resources of the river valley. This puts pressure on the ecosystem, as fewer resources are available to serve the needs of the population located within the region. Increased competition for commonly held resources, such as wild fruits and vegetables, timber, fodder and firewood, disrupts the subsistence routines of riverine populations. This has the impact of forcing people to forge in new areas that may be further from their homes in and/or in locations that are used by other groups for either similar or conflicting purposes. The dams also seriously affect human health through the spread of disease. For instance, schistosomiasis and malaria proliferate in areas around the still water of dam reservoirs. Beyond creating habitat for disease vectors, dams have been linked with the spread of non-communicable diseases like mercury poisoning. The increase in disease is also attributable to the influx of migratory workers during the time of dam construction. The overall social impact of a surge in disease in communities is to increase social malaise and to circumscribe livelihood opportunities. The process of displacement has affected most the weaker sections of the people in India. The scheduled tribes and castes and backward caste people constitute a large chunk of the displaced people. Women and children suffer the maximum in any displacement. The conditions of people displaced by the various dams in the Narmada have attracted the attention of the Supreme Court of India, and it is observed that the measures at resettlement and in making provision for civic amenities in the new settlements are far below expectation. The total number of people displaced by dams is estimated to be 40 80 million throughout the world a substantial number of these people are Indians (the estimates vary, but the figure is likely to be around 4.4 million people). The people get compensation, but the process is often long-drawn, and sometimes, the actual sufferers are not getting true value for the losses incurred. These are inadequate when compared to the permanent loss of livelihood, and the social and mental cost of displacement. Large Dams in India At independence, in 1947, there were not more than 300 large dams in India. By 2000, the number grew to over 4000, more than half of them built between 1971 and 1989. India ranks third in the world in dam building after US and China. While some of these dams were built primarily for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation, the primary purpose of most Indian dams (96 percent) remains irrigation. In fact, large dam construction has been the main form of investment in irrigation undertaken by the Indian government. However, much controversy has evoked since 1980s with the Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada when the people started asking questions on the social, environmental, and economic costs of dams and their benefits. Most irrigation dams in India are embankment dams. They consist of a wall built across a river to impound water forming a reservoir upstream and a system of spillways and gates to bypass the wall to maintain normal flow and the impounded water flows to canals feeding agriculture fields downstream. People living in the upstream catchment area, lose property and livelihood and gain very little, while people living in the command area (downstream) gain the most from irrigation. Between 1951 and 2000, Indias production of food grains increased fourfold, from 51 million tonnes to about 200 million tonnes resulting in considerable foreign exchange savings in food grains import, and making India a food grain surplus or at least self-sufficient country. About two thirds of this increase has been attributed to rise in irrigated areas, 35 % of which are irrigated by dams. Case Studies The world is building more dams every year. New dams promise more electricity and at the same time, they are devastating to others. A few case studies are briefly described below: The Enawene Nawe, Brazil The Enawene Nawe, a small Amazonian tribe (over 420) who live by fishing in Mato Grosso state, Brazil, is a relatively isolated people. They grow manioc and corn in gardens and gather forest products, like honey but fishing is their main livelihood and fish are a vital part of their diet, as they are one of the few tribes who eat no red meat. During the fishing season, the men build large dams across rivers and spend several months camped in the forest, catching and smoking the fish which is then transported by canoe to their village. For decades, the Enawene Nawe has faced invasion of their lands by rubber tappers, diamond prospectors, cattle ranchers and more recently soya planters Maggi, the largest soya company in Brazil, illegally built a road on their land in 1997 (this was subsequently closed by a federal prosecutor). Although their territory was officially recognized and ratified by the government in 1996, a key area known as the Rio Preto was left out. This area is tremendously important to the Enawene Nawe both economically and spiritually this is where they build their fishing camps and dams, and where many important spirits live. Now, up to 11 dams are planned along the Juruena River, which flows through the Indians territory. The dams will be funded by a consortium of businesses, many of whom are involved in the soya industry. The Enawene Nawe is opposing the dams, and has launched an appeal for support to halt the construction. The Penan, Malaysia In 2008, a leaked map exposed the huge dam plans of the national electricity company in Sarawak, Malaysia. The local Penan people, who are familiar with destructive interference from outsiders, now face a new challenge to their land and livelihoods. Blueprints were accidentally posted on the internet for dams that will submerge homes and villages. To make matters worse, these dams are projected to produce far more electricity than Sarawak uses. The Borneo forests The island of Borneo, a fragile treasure house of rainforests, rare animals and plants, is under threat from plans for Chinese engineers to build 12 dams that will cut through virgin land and displace thousands of native Dayak people. The government of the Malaysian state of Sarawak says the dams are the first stage of a corridor of renewable energy that will create 1.5 million jobs through industries powered by safe, clean hydro-electricity. Campaigners are furious but appear powerless in the face of a project they fear will compound the devastation wrecked on Borneos peoples and land by previous dam projects and the felling of its forests. They point to the ruin caused by the levelling of millions of acres of trees for oil palm plantations to meet the worlds demand for biofuels. The dams would slice across a vast sweep of Sarawak, a place where wisps of cloud cling to remote, tree-clad peaks, huge butterflies flit through the foliage and orang-utans, sun bears and leopards roam. The Bakun dam, a separate project due to be completed by 2011, has already displaced an estimated 10,000 indigenous people, leading to bitter legal battles and a chorus of dismay from economists about cost overruns. For all that, it may be too late to save the natural bounty of Borneo itself. Orphaned orang-utans, piteously holding the outstretched hands of their human saviours, are the most conspicuous symbols of its fragility. Divided between Malaysia and Indonesia, with Brunei occupying a tiny enclave in the north, Borneos riches have ensured its plunder. One reason is the voracious world demand for timber. The other is the biofuels made from palm oil. Almost half of Borneos rainforests have been cut down. Two million acres have vanished every year as trees are felled, the wood sold and the land turned over to oil palms. Enormous fires cast a perpetual pall of toxic haze, making Indonesia the worlds third largest greenhouse gas polluter after China and the United States. Green gold, or palm oil, poses an even more insidious threat because it promises prosperity and development to the numerous poor of Borneo along with immense rewards for the elites. The vegetable oil comes from crushed palm husks. Long used for cooking, cosmetics and soap, it has now become a principal source of biodiesel fuel. Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85% of the worlds supply of palm oil most of it from Borneo. The price of this apparently environment-friendly fuel is high as the damages far outweigh the benefits. All over Sarawak, tribal people have lost their ancestral lands to similar gambits. The situation in India Bhakra-Nangal Dam This dam is situated in the town Bhakra in Punjab and is Asias biggest dam. The dam is built on the Sutlej River. It is 225.55 m high above sea level. The dam is 518.25 m long and 304.84 m broad. Its huge reservoir known as the Gobindh Sarovar, stores up to 9621 million cu m of water, enough to drain the whole of Chandigarh, parts of Haryana, Punjab and Delhi. It has 4 floodgates, which are fully functional during the period of floods, and also has 2 power- stations situated on either side of the dam. Each of the power plants comprise of 5 generators, and a power station. The total electricity produced in both the generators is 1325 MW. The Narmada River Dams The Narmada River originates from the Maikal ranges at Amarkantak, 1057 m above the sea-level, now in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh. The river flows for 1312 km through the three states of Madhya Pradesh (MP), Maharashtra and Gujarat before falling into the Arabian Sea. The valley has been the seat of an uninterrupted flow of human civilization from pre-historic times. The river has supported a variety of people and diverse socio-cultural practices ranging from the relatively autonomous adivasi (tribal) settlements in the forests to non-tribal rural population. The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98,796  km2 and lies between 720 32 E to 810 45 E and 21o 20 N to 23o 45 N. The basin covers large areas in the states of Madhya Pradesh (86%), Gujarat (14%) and a comparatively smaller area (2%) in Maharashtra. In the river course of 1,312  km, there are 41 tributaries, out of which 22 are from the Satpuda range and the rest on the right bank are from the Vindhya range. The valley experiences extremes of hydrometeorological and climatic conditions with the upper catchment having an annual precipitation in the range of 1000  mm to 1850  mm and with half or even less than half in its lower regions (650  mm-750  mm); the diversity of vegetation from lush green in the upper region to dry deciduous teak forest vegetation in the lower region is testimony to this feature. The Narmada basin is drought affected and a large part of North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch constitute semi-arid or arid regions on account of extreme unreliability of rainfall, rendering them chronically drought prone and subject to serious drinking water problems. Teak and Indias best hardwood forests are found in the Narmada River basin and they are much older than the ones in the Himalayas. The lower Narmada River Valley and the surrounding uplands, covering an area of 169,900  km2 consists of dry deciduous forests. The natural vegetation of the region is a three-tiered forest. Tectona grandis is the dominant canopy tree, in association with Diospyros melanoxylon, Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), and Boswellia serrata. Riperian areas along the regions rivers and streams, which receive year-round water, are home to moist evergreen forests. The ecoregion is home to 76 species of mammals and to 276 bird species none of which are endemic. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), about 30% of the ecoregion is covered in relatively intact vegetation. The ecoregion includes some large blocks of habitat in the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. About 5% of the ecoregion lies within protected areas, including Bandhavgarh, Panna, and Sanjay National Parks. The valley has some of the important national parks and wild life sanctuaries. Kanha national park located in the upper reaches of Narmada, about 18  km from Mandla, boasts of several wild animals including the Tiger. Two tributaries of Narmada, namley, Hallon and Banjar, flow through this park. It is one of the best National Parks of Asia, which has been described vividly by Rudyard Kipling in his famous creation Jungle Book. Satpura National Park, set up in 1981, is located in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 524  km2. Along with the adjoining Bori and Panchmarhi Sanctuaries, it constitutes an area of 1,427  km2 of unique Central Indian Highland ecosystem. Satpura National Park, being part of a unique ecosystem, is very rich in biodiversity. The fauna comprises tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, bhedki, nilgai, four-horned antelope, chinkora, bison (gour), wild boar, wild dog, bear, black bear, black buck, fox, porcupine, flying, mouse deer, Indian jo int squirrel etc. There are a variety of birds. Hornbills and peafowl are the common birds. The flora of the national park consists of mainly sal, teak, tendu, aonla, mohua, bel, bambo, and a variety of grasses and medicinal plants. Madla plant Fossil National park, Dindori National fossils park Ghughuya is situated in Din dori district of Madhya Pradesh in India. This national park has plants in fossil form that existed in India anywhere between 40 million and 150 million years ago spread over seven villages of Mandla District (Ghuguwa, Umaria, Deorakhurd, Barbaspur, Chanti-hills, Chargaon and Deori Kohani). The Mandla Plant Fossils National Park is an area that spreads over 274,100  m2. The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve covers part of three civil districts viz., Hoshangabad, Betul and Chhindwara of Madhya Pradesh. The total area is 4926.28  km2. It envelops three wildlife conservation units viz., Bori Sanctuary (518.00 km ²), Satpura National Park (524.37  km2), and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37  km2). Satpura National Park comprises the core zone and the remaining area of 4,501.91  km2, surrounding the core zone serves as buffer zone. The area comprises 511 villages. The area exhibits variety of geological rock and soil formations. There is a wide spectrum of floral and faunal features that occupy the Satpura conservation area. It is one of the oldest forest reserves, which has an established tradition of scientific management of forests. It constitutes a large contiguous forest block that harbours a community of plant and animal species typical of the central highland region. Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The Maheshwar and Omkareshwar dams along with SSP and NSP, are to form a complex which would ultimately cater to the needs of SSP. The struggle of the people of the Narmada valley against large dams began when the people to be displaced by SSP began organizing in 1985-86. Since then the struggle has spread to encompass other major dams in various stages of planning and construction chiefly Maheshwar, Narmada Sagar, Maan, Goi and Jobat. Tawa and Bargi Dams were completed in 1973 and 1989 respectively. Sardar Sarovar project The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) faced stiff opposition from the people right from the planning stage. The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada movement) has been at the forfront of this opposition and at one time the NBA was successful in stopping World Bank funding for the project. A number of cases were filed against the project. However, the Supreme Court of India in 2000 issued a final ruling allowing construction to proceed. It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people would be displaced to construct the reservoir and a large number of people will lose land or livelihood due to project activities. A majority of the displaced people are tribal people. Medha Patkar (born 1 December 1954 in Bombay) is the founder of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and has vowed to work for the displaced people. She is one of Indias most important environmental activists. Her uncompromising insistence on the right to life and livelihood has brought to the fore the basic questions of natural resources, human rights, environment, and developm

Man Vs. Himself In The Scarlet Letter by Hawthorne :: essays research papers

A great deal of blood has been shed and many wars have been fought during the history of civilization; however, man’s greatest battle and most formidable enemy is only himself. This has been made only more evident with the passage of time and the development of the human character. However, one factor that has remained constant in the human character through this development is conscience. Conscience can be man’s saving grace or his damning affliction; its presence may simultaneously purify and mar. As contradictory as this may sound, it has been explored in depth by Nathaniel Hawthorne who chronicles one man’s battle against himself in The Scarlet Letter. In this novel, an anguished Arthur Dimmesdale struggles to pacify his conscience and withhold the secret of his sin from being known. As his conscience continues to consume all that is his very essence, Arthur Dimmesdale illustrates Hawthorne’s theme of a sin-stained conscience and redemption only through truth. The novel begins to delve into the heart and conscience of Arthur Dimmesdale when Roger Chillingworth questions him about his thoughts on sinners and their secrets. Feeling full well the torment of his own secret, Arthur proclaims that those who hold such "miserable secrets†¦will yield them up that last day†¦with a joy unutterable." By this expression, Arthur offers a glimpse into his tortured heart and shows how heavy a burden his secret is. When Chillingworth further inquires about such sinful secrets, Arthur holds his hand to his breast, a motion that he carries out as "if afflicted with an importunate throb of pain." Evidently Arthur does this frequently, and the reader is presented with the thought that this gesture possibly is not done as much out of physical suffering as spiritual suffering. Not only is the health of Arthur’s body in question, but the condition of his heart, his soul, is dubious. A supernatural light is later shed upon this question as Chillingworth uncovers the secret Arthur had tried to keep intact. It is visible to him as he pulls aside Arthur’s ministerial robe: a scarlet letter A upon his chest. Although Hawthorne lets this aspect of the novel remain ambiguous, this engraving on Arthur’s chest suggests that the burden of his sin had seeped so deeply within him, it has now forced its way outside; it is at all his levels. At this point in the novel, Arthur’s sin had begun, if it had not already succeeded, in consuming him. Arthur’s conscience was now stained with sin, and its weight will

Abortion :: essays research papers

I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion is a risky operation. It should remain safe and legal to everyone. In past times, when women have not legally been able to get an abortion, they have gone to places such as brothels to get an abortion, where the conditions were not safe nor sanitary, and many times doing this resulted in infection, if not death. The following procedures should be conducted with the utmost care and responsibility. A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The dilation and evacuation (D&E) abortion procedure is used during the second trimester ( 14 - 26 weeks ). Due to the larger body of the fetus and the toughness of more developed fetal tissues, the cervix is dilated more and the fetus is dismembered by the abortionist grasping the fetal body parts with an instrument to twist them off. The fetus's skull has to be crushed and its spine snapped for an easy removal. An ultrasound is needed at the end and an assistant needed to account for all body parts. To soften the fetal tissues of late second-trimester, the fetus sometimes was killed first by injecting urea into amniotic fluid or rupturing the membranes and cutting the umbilical cord 24 hours before the abortion. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the saline, prostaglandin, and urea instillation method, the abortionist injects a concentrated salt solution or urea into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus which causes burning and poisoning as the fetus ingests the solution. Prostaglandin hormone injected will stimulate an uterine contraction to expel the fetus. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The hysterotomy and hysterectomy procedures or methods are done during the second and third trimester. Like a Cesarean section, the abortionist surgically opens up the uterus and removes the fetus and the placenta. The fetus who could be saved even as early as 21 weeks is left to die. D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The dilation and extraction procedure is well-known as the partial-birth abortion in which the abortionist induces labor and the live fetus is delivered up to his head. Then the abortion forces a pair of curved scissors into the base of the skull of the fetus, enlarges the wound by opening up the scissors, inserts a suction catheter to suck out his brain and to collapse his skull for easy removal. This method is favored for a low rate of complications, for a safe abortion done on mature fetus during late pregnancy up to 32 weeks or more, also for the way to extract live fetal brain tissue for transplantation and research on various kinds of treatments in reversing the aging processes on elders.

Argumentative Essay: All Handguns MUST Be Banned :: Gun Control Essays

All handguns must be banned because they are the cause (s) of many deaths amongst the people of the world today. Gun violence result in fifty percent of today’s tragedies. Handguns causes too many deaths, the government need to make gun less accessible, and the law/law enforcement need to really enforce the laws they make. First, and foremost many handguns have claimed the lives of too many people. This is a very serious issue we must tackle globally not just in the United States. The same problem is killing our past, present, and future. Gun violence has claimed the lives of so many Americans that we are the leading country in crimes committed by guns. These guns are claiming the lives of people ranging from babies to adults to even the elderly. Handguns are just causing too many deaths. Second, if handguns or guns in general weren’t that accessible and it wasn’t that easy to get a hold of one most of this senseless violence would not occur. I believe that if the proper laws go in effect we would have fewer criminals. In addition to those laws we need to be sure proper authorities enforce them. The lawmakers of today make laws and they don’t think about the decisions they make from both perspectives. They may say it’s all right to own a handgun but they may have different intentions than the user has on how and why they need one. The owner may need one for their protection but the lawmaker may think it’s for hunting or something other than it causing violence. To ensure these guns are not being used for violence the law needs to make a set of rules and regulations on the conditions of guns. How to use them/abuse them need to be the number one law. It should state guns are not intended to be used for violence of no kind. The law need to enforce the laws they make to ensure proper safety it would eliminate half of the gun violence. On a personal note I lost a cousin to gun violence. I really can’t say at first I blamed "the gun" but I blamed the person. When I thought about it I has to ask certain questions like†¦ how did this guy get the gun any how?

The Need to Study English as a Foreign Language

WHY DO WE STUDY ENGLISH It is necessary to study at least one foreign language today. That’s why pupils have got such subject as a foreign language at school. The problem of learning foreign languages is very important today. Foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time. We know that the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. The total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven years. Foreign languages are needed as the main and the most efficient means of information exchange of the people of our planet. Today English is the language of the world. English isn’t only the national or official language of some thirty states, which represent different cultures, but it is also the major international language of communication in such areas as science, technology, business and mass entrainment. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organizations. It is the language of literature, education, modern music and international tourism. I learn English because I understand that I can use it. As I’m going to work in the sphere of management in Electronic Equipment Trade, I think that it is very important for a specialist of high qualification to speak at least one foreign language. English is extremely necessary as it is the most popular language of international business communication. I learn English because I want to read foreign literature in the original. Besides, the English language is the language of the great literature. A lot of modern literature and many new films in English come out every year. If you know English, you can understand them without translation. No wonder that most educated people speak English fluently. I like to travel, but it is difficult to visit new places, when you don’t know the language of these countries. And it is much easier to travel when you know the language. If I want to ask something, I can do it in English. Today, one person in seven of the world’s population either knows English or learns it. So a modern and a cultured person must learn foreign languages.

Negative effects of video games Essay

The US video game market reached nearly $ 21 billion in sales in 2008. On an average an adolescent spends about 10-13 hours per week playing video games. The cause may be attributed to the fact that video games today have become a necessity more than a luxury. They are a unique form of entertainment because they encourage players to become a part of the game. However, video games have both positive and negative impacts on players. While some of them are fun and entertaining, others have drastic effects on children. On one hand, video games are a source of leisure. People play video games because they want to get away from their everyday stressful life since these games are fun and interesting way to spend time. Another major advantage of playing video games includes improving children’s computer literacy since most of the games nowadays require internet. Also research studies show that video games tend to increase one’s hand eye coordination as well as their ability to make quick and reasonable judgements. Educational games provide practice in problem solving and logic and are thus becoming more prevalent as teaching tools for youth in primary and secondary schools. However this is just one side of the coin. Video Games with violent content have far reaching effects on children. Research studies suggest that violent video games increase aggressive behavior among youth. Since violent acts are often rewarded and continually repeated in a game, it highly influences them. Children who see a lot of violence are more likely to view violence as an effective way of settling conflicts and are more likely to assume that violence is acceptable behavior. Also, if one buys an intriguing game, he may get addicted to it, which may lead to drastic consequences. An addiction may lead to physical problems like obesity, headaches, damage to eye, decline in schoolwork productivity, spending problems and confusion between real and unreal. Over dependence on video games could also foster social isolation, as they are often played alone.

How Does Groupthink Affect Decision Making in an Organasation Essay

Colman(2001) in a dictionary of psychology defines groupthink as â€Å" a collective pattern of defensive avoidance , characteristic of a group decision making in organisations in which group members develop rationalisations in supporting illusions of their own infallibility and invulnerability within the organisation . †p. 318. It entails that there is more of concurrence than critical thinking when making decisions in an organisation. This article will discuss how groupthink can affect decision making in an organisation such as school, political party and airtel (Business Company). Groupthink can cause poor performance or even failure to achieve the organisations objectives. Its tendency of seeking concurrence can for example make a wrong decision triumph (Shepherd, 1964). For instance, a cafeteria committee can change the supplier of food stuffs. If the group does not objectively consider the decision may end up selecting poor food stuffs that may be unhealthy to the students. Coon and Mitterer (2007) state that the urge to make such decisions may arise from the need to maintain others approval even at the cost of critical thinking. In apolitical party groupthink results in poor allocation of resources. For example, parties spend a great deal of resources of University Party Wings at the expense of the grassroots electorate. It a phenomenon that protectors of their group do not scrutinise critically but merely sustains the tradition due to failure to see other alternatives that could be available. Groupthink creates failed systems in organisations (Harvard business School, Online). Institutions are likely to repeat or continue of ineffective projects. Members of a group converge their opinions without objective analysis (Brown, 1965). This results in no consultations as outer groups are seen as enemies. They also feel to be infallible. A failed system is thus likely to emerge due to groupthink. For instance, airtel introduced some irrelevant airtime bundles which they had to reverse after some time because they discovered that they made two identical bundles. In a school as an institution, a possible example of how groupthink can affect decision making is that some students in class may yield to groupthink. Teachers have to note the enormous ability of students to influence others in decisions. Through groupthink learners might agree on a wrong decision or force others to agree (Gage, 1995). Learners may thus fail to grasp the intended learning outcomes. Groupthink also affects decision making in organisations in the way that solutions that are initially presented by most members are never re-examined to seek out less obvious shortfalls and strengths. They even fail examine those original points that were supported by the majority. This leads to decisions that result in costly mistakes. For example, there could be an element of groupthink in primary schools who force learners to pay money to access the free primary education. The teachers claim that the money is for the salary for watchmen among other claims, yet it is clear that that is the duty of government. The results in such primary schools has been increased abscondment let alone drop outs. Similarly, some primary school committees have decided to compel learners to be fetching firewood for the as School Feeding Programme. This costs students time and the rationality of the decision is questionable. The other way in which groupthink affects decision making in organisation is that decisions are centre around the control of one person usually a leader who protects the group from adverse information that might undermine the existing complacency. Direct pressure is also mounted on any member who might hold dissenting views on consensus opinion (Colman, 2001; Weiten, 2007). This automatically rules out comfortable participation from members there by compromising the credibility of an rganisation’s decisions. This in turn blocks communication flow which is vital in any organisation. For example, in Political Parties such tendencies lead to divisions manifested in emergency of mutinies such as that of United Democrat Front earlier this year when others went on with the Convention while other shunned it. In conclusion, groups are supposedly thought to have high likelihood of making brilliant decisions yet this is not always the case (Cartwright and Zander, 1968 cited in Levine and Moreland, 1995). It has been found that groupthink can affect the decision making in organisations that lead to poor decisions. Costy mistakes are made, objectives are not effectively achieved and groups fail to change a failing policy. Whyte (1989) points out that the wish for unanimity overrides members motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Thus, it can be argued generally that the effect of groupthink in organisation decision making is that it declines the quality of decisions tha t compromise the ambitions, efficiency and productivity of an organisation.